Síntese Digital Direta

Os projetos tradicionais de sintetizadores de frequência de elevada largura de banda utilizam um circuito fechado de fase (PLL). Um sintetizador digital direto, ou na terminologia inglesa, Direct Digital Dynthesis (DDS) oferece muitas vantagens significativas sobre as abordagens PLL como, por exemplo, um tempo de estabilização rápido, resolução de frequência sub-Hertz, resposta de comutação de fase contínua e baixo ruído de fase. Embora o princípio do DDS seja conhecido há muitos anos, o DDS não desempenhou um papel dominante na geração de frequência de banda larga até recentemente. Os DDSs iniciais eram limitados a produzir frequências estreitamente espaçadas com pequena largura de banda, devido a limitações da lógica digital e das tecnologias de conversão D/A. As vantagens recentes nas tecnologias de circuitos integrados (CI) trouxeram um progresso notável nesta área. Ao programar um DDS, é possível adaptar as larguras de banda de canal, formatos de modulação, salto de frequência e taxas de dados. Este é um passo importante em direção a um “software-rádio” que pode ser usado em vários sistemas. Um DDS pode ser aplicado no modulador ou demodulador nos sistemas de comunicação. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi encontrar um frontend ideal para um transmissor, concentrando-se nas implementações de circuito do DDS, mas a pesquisa também inclui a interface para circuitos de banda base e aspetos de design de nível de sistema de sistemas de comunicação digital.Traditional high-bandwidth frequency synthesizer designs utilize a phase closed loop (PLL). A direct digital synthesizer, or in English terminology, Direct Digital Dynthesis (DDS) offers many significant advantages over PLL approaches such as a fast-settling time, sub-Hertz frequency resolution, continuous phase switching response and low phase noise. Although the principle of DDS has been known for many years, DDS has not played a dominant role in broadband frequency generation until recently. Early DDSs were limited to producing closely spaced frequencies with low bandwidth, due to limitations of digital logic and D/A conversion technologies. Recent advances in integrated circuit (IC) technologies have brought remarkable progress in this area. When programming a DDS, it is possible to adapt channel bandwidths, modulation formats, frequency hopping and data rates. This is an important step towards “radio software” that can be used on multiple systems. A DDS can be applied in the modulator or demodulator in the communication systems. The purpose of this research was to find an ideal frontend for a transmitter, focusing on the circuit implementations of DDS, but the research also includes the interface to baseband circuits and system-level design aspects of digital communication systems

Characterisation of microbial attack on archaeological bone

As part of an EU funded project to investigate the factors influencing bone preservation in the archaeological record, more than 250 bones from 41 archaeological sites in five countries spanning four climatic regions were studied for diagenetic alteration. Sites were selected to cover a range of environmental conditions and archaeological contexts. Microscopic and physical (mercury intrusion porosimetry) analyses of these bones revealed that the majority (68%) had suffered microbial attack. Furthermore, significant differences were found between animal and human bone in both the state of preservation and the type of microbial attack present. These differences in preservation might result from differences in early taphonomy of the bones. © 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

Guidelines for the use and interpretation of assays for monitoring autophagy (4th edition)

In 2008, we published the first set of guidelines for standardizing research in autophagy. Since then, this topic has received increasing attention, and many scientists have entered the field. Our knowledge base and relevant new technologies have also been expanding. Thus, it is important to formulate on a regular basis updated guidelines for monitoring autophagy in different organisms. Despite numerous reviews, there continues to be confusion regarding acceptable methods to evaluate autophagy, especially in multicellular eukaryotes. Here, we present a set of guidelines for investigators to select and interpret methods to examine autophagy and related processes, and for reviewers to provide realistic and reasonable critiques of reports that are focused on these processes. These guidelines are not meant to be a dogmatic set of rules, because the appropriateness of any assay largely depends on the question being asked and the system being used. Moreover, no individual assay is perfect for every situation, calling for the use of multiple techniques to properly monitor autophagy in each experimental setting. Finally, several core components of the autophagy machinery have been implicated in distinct autophagic processes (canonical and noncanonical autophagy), implying that genetic approaches to block autophagy should rely on targeting two or more autophagy-related genes that ideally participate in distinct steps of the pathway. Along similar lines, because multiple proteins involved in autophagy also regulate other cellular pathways including apoptosis, not all of them can be used as a specific marker for bona fide autophagic responses. Here, we critically discuss current methods of assessing autophagy and the information they can, or cannot, provide. Our ultimate goal is to encourage intellectual and technical innovation in the field